Freya Baetens
Professor of Public International Law; Research Director, Oxford Human Rights Hub
Biography
Freya Baetens is Professor of Public International Law at the Faculty of Law, Research Director of the Oxford Human Rights Hub (OxHRH), GIC+ Project Director at Regent's Park College and Senior Associate at Pembroke College. She is also affiliated with the LEVEL Project (Faculty of Law, Oslo University) and the Europa Institute (Faculty of Law, Leiden University). She has been a visiting professor at the KU Leuven (Belgium), Max Planck Institute for International, European and Regulatory Procedural Law (Luxembourg), Université Paris Nanterre (France), National University Singapore (Singapore), Sydney Law School (Australia), Xi’An Jiaotong Law School (China), FHR Lim A Po Institute (Suriname) and the World Trade Institute, Bern University (Switzerland). In 2024, she was awarded the inter-university Francqui Chair (Belgium). She currently serves as the Vice-President and Treasurer of the European Society of International Law (ESIL).
As a Member of the Brussels Bar, she regularly acts as counsel or expert before international tribunals (including inter-State and investor-State arbitration) and courts such as the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the African Court on Human and People's Rights, the World Trade Organisation and the European Court of Justice. She is listed on the EU Roster of Arbitrators and Trade & Sustainable Development (TSD) experts, the Panel of Arbitrators and Conciliators of the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), the South China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (Shenzhen Court of International Arbitration) and the Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre (HKIAC).
She undertook her doctoral research at the University of Cambridge (Gonville and Caius College), after obtaining LLB and LLM (equiv.) degrees from the University of Ghent (Belgium) and an LLM degree from the University of Columbia (USA). At Oxford, she received an MA in Law (by Resolution) and a DPhil in Law (by Incorporation).
Publications
Crawford J and Baetens F, ‘The ILC Articles on State Responsibility: More than a ‘Plank in a Shipwreck’?’ (2022) 37(1-2) ICSID Review - Foreign Investment Law Journal 13
Baetens F, ‘PROTECTING FOREIGN INVESTMENT AND PUBLIC HEALTH THROUGH ARBITRAL BALANCING AND TREATY DESIGN’ (2022) 71(1) International and Comparative Law Quarterly 139
Baetens F, ‘The Transitional Mechanism Regulating Extra-EU Bilateral Investment Treaties has Turned 10: High Time to Re-Assess’ (2022) 47(4) EUROPEAN LAW REVIEW 437
Baetens F, ‘Jadhav Case (India v. Pakistan) (I.C.J.)’ (2020) 59(2) International Legal Materials 187
Baetens F, ‘“No deal is better than a bad deal”? The fallacy of the WTO fall-back option as a post-Brexit safety net’ (2018) 55(Special Issue) Common Market Law Review 133
Baetens F, ‘Judicial Review of International Adjudicatory Decisions: A Cross-Regime Comparison of Annulment and Appellate Mechanisms’ (2017) 8(3) Journal of International Dispute Settlement 432
Baetens F, ‘L’importance des dispositions transitoires pour les traités bilatéraux d’investissement conclus entre les États membres de l’UE et les États tiers’ [2017] Cahiers De Droit Europeen
Baetens F, ‘The European Union’s Proposed Investment Court System: Addressing Criticisms of Investor-State Arbitration While Raising New Challenges’ (2016) 43(Issue 4) Legal Issues of Economic Integration 367
Baetens F, ‘Clarifying the Meaning of ‘Investment’ and the Temporal Scope of Treaties: Republiek Ecuador v Chevron Corporation (USA) en Texaco Petroleum Company, Hoge Raad (Dutch Supreme Court), Judgment, 26 September 2014’ (2016) 17(3) The Journal of World Investment & Trade 463
Baetens F, ‘The Most Toxic Acronyms in Europe: the EU Trade and Investment Treaties and the Investor-State Dispute Settlement Mechanism’ [2016] SEW
Baetens F, Scarlat N and Dumbryte A, ‘Analysing the practice of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia in dealing with annulment requests on appeal’ [2015] ALC International Criminal Tribunals
Baetens F, ‘Investment chapters including dispute settlement mechanisms in bilateral trade agreements’ [2015] Royal Dutch Society of International Law Journal
Baetens F, ‘Transatlantic Treaty Investment Protection – a Response to Poulsen, Bonnitcha and Yackee’ [2015] CES Special Report
Baetens F, ‘The Rule of Law or the Perception of the Beholder? Why Investment Arbitrators are Under Fire and Trade Adjudicators are Not: A Response to Joost Pauwelyn’ (2015) 109 AJIL Unbound 302
BAETENS F and PRISLAN V, ‘The Dissemination of International Scholarship: The Future of Books and Book Reviews’ (2014) 27(3) Leiden Journal of International Law 559
Baetens F, Kreijen G and Varga A, ‘Multi-party investment arbitration: determining breach and compensation under the new extra-EU investment agreements’ [2014] Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law
Baetens F, ‘Procedural Issues Relating to Shared Responsibility in Arbitral Proceedings’ (2013) 4(2) Journal of International Dispute Settlement 319
Bronckers M and Baetens F, ‘Reconsidering financial remedies in WTO dispute settlement’ (2013) 16(2) Journal of International Economic Law 281
Baetens F, von Bernstorff J and Jacob M, ‘Steuerung der Außenwirtschaftsförderung in Deutschland, USA und den Niederlanden im Rechtsvergleich’ [2013] INEF Forschungsreihe Menschenrechte, Unternehmensverantwortung Und Nachhaltige Entwicklung
Baetens F and Ling C, ‘Being an International Law Lecturer in the 21St Century: Where Tradition Meets Innovation’ (2013) 2(4) Cambridge International Law Journal 974
Baetens F and Yotova R, ‘The Abyei Arbitration: A Model Procedure for Intra-State Dispute Settlement in Resource-Rich Conflict Areas?’ [2011] Göttingen Journal of International Law
Baetens F, ‘Foreign Investment Law and Climate Change: Legal Conflicts Arising from Implementing the Kyoto Protocol Through Private Investment’ [2010] Sustainable Development Law on Climate Change
Baetens F, ‘Muddling the Waters of Treaty Interpretation? Relevant Rules of International Law in the MOX Plant OSPAR Arbitration and EC – Biotech Case’ (2008) 77(3) Nordic Journal of International Law 197
Baetens F, ‘SAFE UNTIL PROVEN HARMFUL? RISK REGULATION IN SITUATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY: THE GMO CASE’ (2007) 66(2) The Cambridge Law Journal 276
Baetens F, ‘World Trade Organization Rules Before Investment Tribunals: Facilitating Cross-Fertilisation While Appreciating Particularities’ 24(1) The Journal of World Investment & Trade 1
Baetens F, ‘Transparency Across International Courts and Tribunals’ 91(4) Nordic Journal of International Law 595
Baetens F and Bismuth R, ‘Face à Face: Interview with Maria Teresa Infante Caffi – Judge at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea’ 21(2) The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals 237
Baetens F and Bismuth R, ‘Face à Face’ 20(2) The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals 225
Baetens F, Waibel M and Desierto D, Cambridge Textbook of International Economic Law: An Integrated Approach (Cambridge University Press 2024)
Baetens F and Baetens P, Identity and Diversity on the International Bench Who Is the Judge? (Oxford University Press, USA 2021)
Baetens F, ‘Advances in the sustainable use of natural resources through the Permanent Court of Justice and the International Court of Justice’ in MC Cordonier Segger and I Espa (eds.), Natural resources, sustainable development and international law (Wolters Kluwer 2024)
Baetens F and Brown R, ‘The British Yearbook of International Law: cautiously driving the international legal imagination’ in I Van Hulle and C Landauer (eds.), Journals as Sources of International Law (2024)
Baetens F and Zhang S, ‘China: An Emerging Rule-maker in International Investment Law’ in I de la Rasilla and C Cai (eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of China and International Law (Cambridge University Press 2024)
Crawford J, Baetens F and Cameron R, ‘Functions of the International Court of Justice’, The Cambridge Companion to the International Court of Justice (Cambridge University Press (CUP) 2023)
Baetens F, ‘Beyond State Consent to International Jurisdiction – From Courts to Law’, 22 LPICT Symposium (2023)
Baetens F, ‘The independence and impartiality of adjudicators in regional courts’ in G Cordero-Moss (ed.), Independence and impartiality of international adjudicators, Ius Comparatum – Global Studies in Comparative Law (Intersentia 2023)
Baetens F and Crawford J, ‘Assistance from an unexpected corner? International trade law’s contribution to combatting pandemics’ in F Baetens and S Van den Bogaert (eds.), The EU and the WTO: Ever the Twain Shall Meet – Liber Amicorum Marco Bronckers (KLI 2023)
Baetens F, Crawford J and Cameron R, ‘Functions of the International Court of Justice’ in C Esposito and K Parlett (eds.), Cambridge Companion on the International Court of Justice (Cambridge University Press 2023)
Baetens F, ‘Comparing arbitration to judicial litigation: assets and challenges’ in EN Godry Farias and others (eds.), Pro-Arbitration Revisited: A Tribute to Professor George Bermann from his Students over the Years (Juris 2023)
Crawford J and Baetens F, ‘The Influence of International Trade Law on International Law’, The Oxford Handbook of International Trade Law (2e) (Oxford University Press (OUP) 2022)
Baetens F, ‘Agents of cross-fertilisation: abusive forum shopping or legitimate forum choice?’ in C Giorgetti and M Pollack (eds.), Beyond Fragmentation: Cross-Fertilisation, Cooperation and Competition among International Courts and Tribunals (Cambridge University Press 2022)
Baetens F, ‘The WTO and climate change mitigation and adaptation’ (Edward Elgar Publishing 2021)
Baetens F, ‘The WTO and climate change mitigation and adaptation’ in P Delimatsis and L Reins (eds.), Encyclopedia on Trade and Environmental Law (Edward Elgar 2021)
Baetens F, ‘CETA Article 8.21: Consultations’ in M Bungenberg and A Reinisch (eds.), CETA: A Commentary (Nomos 2021)
Baetens F and Lavista V, ‘Where is your tribunal? Bernard Loder (1849-1935) and the quest for international justice’ in SP Morris (ed.), The League of Nations and the Development of International Law: A New Intellectual History of the Advisory Committee of Jurists (Routledge 2021)
Baetens F and Choi W, ‘Like Products’ in R Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2020)
Baetens F, ‘The UN Peacebuilding Commission’ in R Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2020)
Baetens F, ‘Identity and diversity on the international bench: implications for the legitimacy of international adjudication’ in F Baetens (ed.), Identity and Diversity on the International Bench: Who is the Judge? (Oxford University Press 2020)
Baetens F, ‘Decolonization of Belgian Territories’ in P Minnerop-Röben, R Wolfrum and F Lachenmann (eds.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law - Thematic Series (2019)
Baetens F, ‘European Community and Union: Association of Overseas Countries and Territories’ in P Minnerop-Röben, R Wolfrum and F Lachenmann (eds.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law - Thematic Series Vol. 3 - International Development Law (2019)
Baetens F, ‘First to rise and first to fall: the Court of Cartago (1907-1918)’ in I de la Rasilla and JE Viñuales (eds.), Experiments in International Adjudication: Historical Accounts (Cambridge University Press 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Ejusdem Generis and Noscitur a Sociis’ in J Klingler, Y Parkhomenko and C Salonidis (eds.), Between the Lines of the Vienna Convention? Canons and Other Principles of Interpretation in Public International Law (Wolters Kluwer 2019)
Baetens F and Choi W, ‘Regional Co-operation and Organization: Asian States’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law - Thematic Series Vol. 3 - International Development Law (Oxford University Press 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Invoking human rights: A useful line of attack or a defence tool for States in investor-State dispute settlement?’ in M Scheinin and Et al. (eds.), Human Rights Norms in ‘Other’ International Courts and Tribunals (Cambridge University Press 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Unseen actors in international courts and tribunals: challenging the legitimacy of international adjudication’ in F Baetens (ed.), Legitimacy of Unseen Actors in International Adjudication (Cambridge University Press 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Combating climate change through the promotion of green investment: from Kyoto to Paris without regime-specific dispute settlement’ in K Miles (ed.), Research Handbook on Environment and Investment Law (Edward Elgar 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Diplomatic Protection’ in R Wolfrum, R Grote and F Lachenmann (eds.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Comparative Constitutional Law (2018)
Baetens F and Kluwen T, ‘International Court of Justice’ in G Martel (ed.), Encyclopedia of Diplomacy (2018)
Baetens F, ‘Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of Investor-State Dispute Settlement as compared to WTO Dispute Settlement’ in J Bourgeois, M Bronckers and R Quick (eds.), WTO Dispute Settlement: A Check-Up (2017)
Bronckers M and Baetens F, ‘Financial Payments as a Remedy in WTO Dispute Settlement Proceedings. An Update’ in JM Bronckers and R Quick (eds.), WTO Dispute Settlement: A Check-Up (2017)
Baetens F, ‘Pacta sunt servanda’ in K Nadakavukaren Schefer and T Cottier (eds.), Encyclopedia of International Economic Law (2017)
Baetens F, ‘State responsibility’ in K Nadakavukaren Schefer and T Cottier (eds.), Encyclopedia of International Economic Law (2017)
Baetens F, ‘Keeping the Status Quo or Embarking on a New Course? Setting Aside, Refusal of Enforcement, Annulment and Appeal’ in A Kulick (ed.), Reassertion of Control over the Investment Treaty Regime (2016)
Baetens F, ‘International Law as a Facilitator for Sustainability: The Sustainable Development Principle in International Adjudication’ in S Goldstein and Et al (eds.), Recht & Duurzame Ontwikkeling (2016)
Baetens F, ‘Horizontal Effect or Drittwirkung of International Rules on Discrimination against Migrant Workers’ in G Goodwin-Gill and P Weckel (eds.), Center for Studies and Research of The Hague Academy of International Law (2015)
Baetens F, ‘Invoking, establishing and remedying state responsibility in mixed multi-party disputes: Lessons from Eurotunnel’ in C Chinkin and F Baetens (eds.), Sovereignty, Statehood and State Responsibility − Essays in Honour of James Crawford (2015)
Baetens F, ‘Transatlantic Treaty Investment Protection – a Response to Poulsen, Bonnitcha and Yackee’ in DS Hamilton and J Pelkmans (eds.), Rule-Makers or Rule-Takers? Exploring the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (2015)
Baetens F, Milanovic M and TZANAKOPOULOS A, ‘Présentation’ in A Pellet (ed.), Le droit international entre souveraineté et communauté (2014)
Baetens F, ‘Facilitating post-conflict reconstruction: is the UN Peacebuilding Commission successfully filling an institutional gap or marking a missed opportunity?’ in C Stahn and et al (eds.), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundation (2014)
Baetens F, ‘Escaping Darwin’s Nightmare: Development, Implementation and Enforcement of Legal Strategies to Maintain Biodiversity’ in K Lachmayer and others (eds.), International Constitutional Law in Legal Education (2014)
Baetens F, ‘Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements and the Trade/Investment Divide: Is the Whole More than the Sum of its Parts?’ in R Hofmann, S Schill and CJ Tams (eds.), Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements: From Recalibration to Reintegration (2013)
Baetens F, ‘Enforcement of Arbitral Awards: ‘to ICSID or not to ICSID’ is Not the Question’ in T Weiler and I Laird (eds.), Investment Treaty Arbitration and International Law (Vol 5) (2012)
Baetens F, ‘The Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA) and its Relationship with the European Community: The Added Value of a Concerted Approach’ in D Kochenov (ed.), On Bits of Europe Everywhere – Overseas Possessions of the EU Member States in the Legal-Political Context of European Law (2011)
Baetens F, ‘The Kyoto Protocol assessed through the lens of investor-State arbitration: Reconciling climate change and investment protection objectives’ in MC Cordonier Segger, MW Gehring and A Newcombe (eds.), Sustainable Development in World Investment Law (2011)
Baetens F, ‘European Community, the Association of Overseas Countries and Territories’ in R Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2010)
Baetens F, ‘Decolonization of Belgian Territories’ in R Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2010)
Baetens F, ‘International Congress of Women (1915)’ in R Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2010)
Baetens F, ‘Discrimination on the Basis of Nationality: Determining Likeness in Human Rights and Investment Law’ in S Schill (ed.), International Investment Law and Comparative Public Law (2010)
Baetens F, ‘The Concept of Equality in International Trade and Investment Law: A Catalyst for Sustainable Development’ in D French (ed.), Global Justice and Sustainable Development (2010)
Baetens F and Hestermeyer H, ‘Article XVI GATT – Subsidies’ in R Wolfrum, PT Stoll and HP Hestermeyer (eds.), WTO – Trade and Goods (Max Planck Commentaries on World Trade Law (2010)
Baetens F, ‘Awards’ in H Ruiz Fabri (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law
Baetens F, ‘Sustainable Development Goal 3: Reconciling Private Investment Protection and Public Health Objectives’ in S Stephenson and MC Cordonier Segger (eds.), Research Handbook on Investment Law and Sustainable Development (Edward Elgar)
Baetens F, ‘Article XVI GATT – Subsidies’ in PT Stoll and HP Hestermeyer (eds.), WTO – Trade and Goods (Max Planck Commentaries on World Trade Law (Brill)
Baetens F and Crawford J, ‘Creation of States: Influence and Legacy’, Leading Works in International Law (Routledge)
Baetens F and Nussberger A, ‘Diversity on the bench of the European Court of Human Rights: a clash of paradigms’, Identity on the International Bench: Who is the Judge? (Oxford University Press)
Baetens F, ‘The Iron Rhine case: On the right track to sustainable development?’ in MC Cordonier Segger and CG Weeramantry (eds.), Sustainable Development Principles in the Decisions of International Courts and Tribunals 1992 – 2012 (2017)
Baetens F, Identity and Diversity on the International Bench (Oxford University Press (OUP) 2020) 1
Baetens F, Legitimacy of Unseen Actors in International Adjudication (Cambridge University Press 2019)
Adinolfi G and others, International Economic Law Contemporary Issues (Springer 2016)
Chinkin C and Baetens F, Sovereignty, Statehood and State Responsibility (Cambridge University Press 2015)
Baetens F and Caiado J, Frontiers of International Economic Law Legal Tools to Confront Interdisciplinary Challenges (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2014)
Baetens F, Investment Law within International Law Integrationist Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2013)
Weiler T and Baetens F, New Directions in International Economic Law In Memoriam Thomas Wälde (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2011)
Baetens F, ‘The EU’s Anti-Coercion Instrument: A Big Stick for Big Targets’ (EJIL Talk!, 19 January 2022)
Baetens F and others, ‘Why The Netherlands should ratify CETA’ (EJIL Talk!, 30 June 2020)
Baetens F and others, ‘Free Trade Agreement with Canada strengthens the legal system’ (Het Financieele Dagblad, 16 June 2020)
Baetens F, ‘Multiple Avenues for State Cooperation with the International Criminal Court, Part 2’ (EJIL Talk!, 12 March 2020)
Baetens F, ‘Multiple Avenues for State Cooperation with the International Criminal Court, Part 1’ (EJIL Talk!, 11 March 2020)
Baetens F, ‘Renewable energy incentives: reconciling investment, EU State aid and climate change law’ (EJIL Talk!, 18 December 2019)
Baetens F, ‘Abuse of process and abuse of rights before the ICJ: ever more popular, ever less successful?’ (EJIL Talk!, 15 October 2019)
Baetens F, ‘The International Court of Justice renders its judgment in the Jadhav case (India v. Pakistan)’ (EJIL Talk!, 18 July 2019)
Baetens F, ‘The Feasibility of Falling Back: the UK, the EU and the WTO – After Brexit’ (Regulating for Globalization, 17 October 2018)
Baetens F, ‘Increasing importance of the transitory mechanism regulating EU Member States’ BITs with third countries: good intentions but problematic implementation?’ (Regulating for Globalization, 21 December 2017)
Baetens F, ‘Expropriation in international investment law’ (Oxford Bibliographies in International Law, 1 January 2017)
Baetens F, ‘Why the Iron Rhine is not on track: Choosing between environmental protection and economic development’ (Neerlandia, 1 January 2015)
Baetens F, ‘Between New York and Genève: UN Chronicle’ (NJCM, 1 January 2012)
Baetens F, ‘The Contemporary Relevance of the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conferences’ (Oxford Bibliographies in International Relations, 1 January 2012)
Baetens F, ‘Uncharted Interaction between Legal Systems: International Investment Law and Other Fields of Public International Law’ (SHRRN, 1 June 2011)
Baetens F, ‘A one way ticket to The Hague? International law observations on the conflict in Libya and the recent UN Security Council Resolution’ (Internationale Spectator, 1 April 2011)
Baetens F, ‘When international rules interact: International investment law and the law of armed conflict’ (ITN, 1 April 2011)
Baetens F and Koppe E, ‘Between New York and Genève: UN Chronicle’ (NJCM, 1 January 2011)
Baetens F, ‘Financing investments under Islamic law: a world apart?’ (ILA Report of the seventy-third conference, Rio de Janeiro 2008, 1 January 2008)
Baetens F, ‘Leniency for cartels: Rewarding whistleblowers’ (Juristenkrant, 1 January 2004)
Baetens F, ‘State Accountability under International Law – Holding states accountable for a breach of jus cogens norms’ [2011] CMLR (review)
Baetens F, ‘Human rights, democracy and the rule of law: liber amicorum Luzius Wildhaber’ [2010] ZaöRV (review)
Baetens F, ‘The Right to Food and the TRIPS Agreement, With a Particular Emphasis on Developing Countries’ Measures for Food Production and Distribution’ (2010) 12(1) International Community Law Review 139 (review)
Baetens F, ‘The Oxford Handbook of International Investment Law’ (2009) 20(3) European Journal of International Law 939 (review)
Baetens F, ‘The Shifting Allocation of Authority in International Law: Considering Sovereignty, Supremacy and Subsidiarity, Essays in Honour of Professor Ruth Lapidoth (Studies in International Law)’ (2009) 68(1) The Cambridge Law Journal 225 (review)
Baetens F, ‘Human Rights and International Trade’ (2008) 11(1) Journal of International Economic Law 176 (review)
Baetens F, ‘The European Constitution, Cases and Materials in EU and Member States’ Law’ [2008] CSLR (review)
Baetens F, ‘Reforming the World Trading System: Legitimacy, Efficiency and Democratic Governance’ (2007) 56(4) International and Comparative Law Quarterly 959 (review)
Baetens F and Bismuth R, ‘Face à Face: Interview with Angelika Nussberger – Professor and Former Judge and Vice-President of the European Court of Human Rights’ (2021)
Baetens F and Bismuth J, ‘Face à Face: Interview with Giorgio Sacerdoti – Professor, Arbitrator and Former Member and President of the WTO Appellate Body’ (2020)
Baetens F and Bismuth R, ‘Face à Face: Interview with Paolina Massidda – Principal Counsel of the Independent Office of the Public Counsel for Victims at the International Criminal Court’ (2020)
Baetens F and Bodeau-Livinec P, ‘Face à Face: Interview with H.E. Judge Abdulqawi Yusuf – President of the International Court of Justice’ (2019)
Baetens F and others, ‘Modernisation of the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT)’ (2019)
Baetens F, Rijpma J and Gruni G, ‘The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership: an EU Perspective on Global Economic Governance’ Kluwer Law International
Baetens F and others, ‘Comparative Costs and Financing of Permanent Dispute Settlement Mechanisms’